Reflective Synopsis

Week 7 - Assessment 2 Reflective Synopsis

 

How do learners learn? Over the years, various learning theorists have attempted to describe the phenomenon of learning, and how it takes place. This reflection will begin by providing a brief overview of popular learning theories including Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Constructivism and Connectivism, followed by the current perspective on what works best in teaching and learning. Next, several merits of e-learning will be identified, and the most effective way to implement the use of technology within the classroom will be discussed. Basic consideration will be given to safe, legal and ethical participation in online environments. In addition, links will be provided to previous blog posts which explore various digital tools that can be used within early childhood (EC) settings to enhance teaching and learning. Finally, the importance of assuming technology to be integral to twenty-first century learning, as opposed to a pedagogical tool that may be randomly integrated into learning experiences, will be highlighted.

  

Behaviourist Learning Theory

Behavioural psychologists argue that learning is acquired through exposure to external stimuli, and is evidenced by visible changes in the learner’s behaviour; therefore, if there are no overt changes in behaviour, learning has not occurred (Snowman et al., 2009, p.382). Behaviourism is ‘founded upon a belief that the association between a stimulus and a reinforced response leads to the learning of new behaviour’ (McInerney & McInerney, 2006, p.96). The behaviourist approach is teacher-centred and emphasises students learning ‘basic academic knowledge and skills’. Behaviourism promotes ‘[the] new behavioural pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic’ (Mergel, 1998, p.2). The most common pedagogical practice associated with the behaviourist approach is ‘direct teaching’ or ‘explicit teaching’, which is most often used to teach basic skills such as reading, writing and mathematical processes. The teacher makes the decisions about what will be learned, how much will be learned, and how it will be learned. Teachers’ roles also include ‘keeping students working productively towards learning new academic knowledge and skills’ and ‘maintaining order and on-task behaviour through the emphasis of positive reinforcement and the use of aversive consequences as needed’ (Snowman et al., 2009, p.382). The teacher usually begins by informing the students what they will be learning and why. Next, the teacher explains or demonstrates the new concept, and breaks the learning into achievable steps. Once students have learned all steps, their learning is typically assessed through a question-and-answer test (Snowman et al., 2009, p.383).

 

Cognitivist Learning Theory

Cognitivist learning theories focus on ‘the internal mental processes individuals use in their effort to make sense of the world’ (McInerney & McInerney, 2006, p.572). Emerging in the 1950’s, Cognitivism sought to explain the inconsistencies of Behaviourism; for example, ‘children do not imitate all behaviour that has been reinforced … [and] may model new behaviour days or weeks after their first initial observation without having been reinforced for the behaviour’ (Mergel, 1998, p.7). Good and Brophy (1990) explain that ‘cognitive theorists view learning as involving the acquisition or reorganisation of the cognitive structures through which humans process and store information’ (p.187). One of the key concepts of Cognitive Theory is the Three-Stage Information Processing Model, which asserts that external stimulus ‘first enters the sensory register, then is processed in short-term memory, and then is transferred to long-term memory for storage and retrieval’ (Mergel, 1998, p.7). Jean Piaget, instrumental in the development of cognitive theory during the 1960’s, explains this process in terms of ‘schemas’. Schemas are internal or cognitive knowledge structures, with which new information can be compared; schema then combine, extend or alter to accommodate the new information (Mergel, 1998, p.7). In this way, schema theory suggests ‘that our prior knowledge can facilitate or enhance transfer of learning’ (asiaeuniversity, n.d., p.131).

 
Constructivist Learning Theory

Constructivists believe that ‘learners construct their own reality or at least interpret it based upon their perceptions of experiences, so an individual’s knowledge is a function of one’s prior experiences, mental structures, and beliefs that are used to interpret objects and events’ (Jonasson, 1991, cited in Mergel, 1998). Constructivism assumes that knowledge is constructed from experience and personal interpretation of the world (Mergel, 1998, p.8). Pedagogical implications of constructivism include the implementation of learning experiences taking place in authentic situations, and assessment being embedded in the task rather than as a separate activity (Mergel, 1998, p.9). Social constructivist, Lev Vygotsky, claimed that learning is heavily influenced by social interactions. He maintained that, through the Zone of Proximal Development, teaching designed and ‘aimed slightly ahead of what children know and can do at the present time … will pull them along, helping them master things they cannot learn on their own’ (Snowman et al., 2009, p.46). An important pedagogical practice within constructivism is ‘scaffolding’, which involves supporting students through the early stages of learning a new skill. Using such techniques as demonstration of tasks, providing hints as to correct solutions for problems or answers for questions, and asking leading questions, the support is gradually withdrawn as students become more competent at working independently (Snowman et al., 2009, p.47).

Connectivist Learning Theory

In his article titled, “Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age”, George Siemens speaks of Connectivism as being the most appropriate contemporary learning theory for this age, and of prior learning theories as having been ‘developed in a time when learning was not impacted by technology’. He contends that the last twenty years has seen technology change the way we live, communicate and learn. He claims that knowledge is growing exponentially, and that ‘know-where’, in terms of accessing required information, has superseded ‘know-what’ and ‘know-how’, as a priority in the twenty-first century. He further asserts that, in a society where knowledge is abundant, the ability to quickly ‘synthesise and recognise connections and patterns is a valuable skill’. The main implications for twenty-first century teachers interested in pursuing the Connectivist approach, therefore, is to assist learners to prioritise their ‘know-where’ skills, as well as to develop critical literacy skills that enable them to discern which information is the most relevant to the task at hand (Siemens, 2004).

 So, which theory is most relevant?

So, which learning theory should educators trust to inform their instructional design? Each theory has its pros and cons. Contemporary curriculum design encompasses a combination of pedagogical practices drawn from all theories. For example, Behaviourism is adopted when rote learning is deemed the most effective way to learn a skill. When students need to learn from experience, Constructivism is the theory of choice. If learners need to access expert information, Connectivism becomes important. However, contemporary learning theorists believe that ‘learning is only complex when knowledge is constructed, and because complex reasoning processes are critical to decision-making and learning in the twenty-first century, constructivism is the theory that informs much of our online design for learning’ (Central Queensland University [CQU], 2012a).

What skills do twenty-first century learners require?

 

Due to the abundance of information now available to students, and the fact that knowledge has such a short life (i.e. as newer, more up-to-date information comes to hand), success for twenty-first century learners is now, more than ever, reliant upon the development of ‘know-where’ skills, in terms of being able to source information relevant to their learning, in a digital world. This requires both technological and critical literacy skills. For this reason, it is important for today’s educators to understand the importance of incorporating information and communication technologies (ICTs) as an integral component of learning environments, and as an integral tool in learning, right from the early years of education.

Why digital technologies?

Howard Gardner noted that learners exhibit a range of abilities in different areas, and this observation led to the development of his theory of multiple intelligences. This theory proposes that there are eight types of intelligence existing independently of one another, and that 'an individual would likely exhibit different levels of skill in each of these domains'. The eight intelligences include: logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalist (Snowman et al., 2009, pp113-4). Sternberg's Triarchic Theory also points toward different kinds of intelligences, suggesting these include componential or analytical intelligence, experiential or creative intelligence, and contextual or practical intelligence. Each of these contribute to overall intelligent behaviour (McInerney & McInerney, 2006, p.75). Such theories suggest that since there are different types of intelligences, students will present as a diverse group with varying learning styles according to the levels and combinations of intelligence they possess in each area. The choice of digital technologies available to educators and learners are vast and make it posssible to access suitable teaching and learning tools to meet the diverse needs of students. Digital technologies encompass 'individual and collaborative work, social networking, visual resources, auditory resources, interactive resources, colour and multiple formatting' and all work together to enhance the experience of learners (CQU, 2012b). Once teachers establish the types of intelligences and learning styles their students possess, digital tools can be used to cater for individual educational requirements. It is also a good idea to expose learners to digital technologies that do not cater quite as well to their particular needs, so that they become competent in accessing information in a variety of ways (CQU, 2012b).

My favourite digital experiences

During my recent experimentation with several digital tools, I have found that most have relevance and can be applied to the EC setting, allowing teachers to utilise their creativity as an additional teacher. It is difficult to choose just one or two, because they all offer fantastic opportunities for EC learners, and different tools would suit different learning styles and intelligences. However, I would have to say that my favourite digital tools were Glogster, Powerpoint, and Zooburst. The links below provide access to previous posts, where an example of each is available, and the reasons I value these tools as EC learning tools is explained in the reflections. I also love the idea of developing a class website to bring many different teaching tools together in the one location for the children to access, and also for the children to share their own digital creations.

 Glogster for EC Context

 Interactive Powerpoint for EC Context

 Zooburst for EC Context

  

TPACK

 

It is important to remember that ICTs are only beneficial when combined with appropriate and effective teaching strategies; these then form the basis for ‘digital pedagogy’which enhances teaching and learning outcomes. The Technological and Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework has been designed specifically for the purpose of guiding teachers in the successful incorporation of digital tools into the learning environment, while maintaining a focus on providing essential content knowledge and utilising effective pedagogical practices. Historically, the profession of teaching has focussed on the delivery of content knowledge. In more recent times, the profession changed its emphasis to the pedagogical practices employed by teachers. Curriculum has typically been influenced by one or the other of these foci. In 1986, Shulman introduced the idea of combining pedagogical and content knowledge to create the concept of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), which is what occurs when the two aspects of teaching are employed together. Since then, vast technological advances have necessitated that technology also be incorporated into the model, resulting in the TPACK framework (Mishra & Koehler, 2006, p.1029). Mishra & Koehler (2006) state that ‘Technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) is an emergent form of knowledge that goes beyond all three components’ to provide ‘pedagogical techniques that use technologies in constructive ways to teach content’, in this way providing a fourth, learning-enhancing dimension (p.1029). While ICTs will enhance teaching and learning, they must be combined with the necessary content knowledge and appropriate pedagogical skills for optimal results. Importantly, ICTs should be seen as integral to the facilitation of learning and used regularly, rather than used infrequently as an optional extra.

Safety, Legal & Ethical Issues

With the benefit of ICTs, also come some important responsibilities. Firstly, it is important to consider the safety of the students; that they cannot access inappropriate material on-line, and that they are not in any way exposed to cyber-bullying. Cyber-bullying is ‘when a child, preteen or teen is tormented, threatened, harassed, humiliated, embarrassed or otherwise targeted by another child, preteen or teen using the Internet, interactive and digital technologies or mobile phones’ (WiredKids, n.d.). Examples of inappropriate material include pornography and violence. Secondly, it is essential that the teacher and the students are aware of the laws protecting copyright, and are able to abide by these so as not to use images and other material on-line in an unauthorised capacity. Finally, ethics dictate that all resources that do not directly belong to the on-line participant must be referenced appropriately.

 

 

The Half-Way Mark

  
At this ‘half-way mark’, I have to say that I feel really privileged to have accessed this learning through the CQU Managing e-Learning Course. I have discovered many exceptional digital tools that I may not otherwise have engaged with. This past seven weeks has opened up a whole new world of possibilities. Being a creative person, I know I will utilise the knowledge and the tools I have accessed through this course to enhance my teaching and, hopefully, my students’ learning in the future.

References:

asiaeuniversity. (n.d.). Learning theories: Five cognitive learning theories.Retrieved 23 December, 2012, from

http://peoplelearn.homestead.com/beduc/chapter_5.pdf

Central Queensland University [CQU]. (2012a). Learning theory: A brief overview of learning theory. Retrieved 30 October, 2012, from

http://moodle.cqu.edu.au/mod/page/view.php?id=60611

Central Queensland University [CQU]. (2012b). e-Learning design: Teaching in digital environments. Retrieved 3 November, 2012, from

http://moodle.cqu.edu.au/mod/page/view.php?id=60619

Good,T. & Brophy,J. (1990).Educational psychology: A realistic approach.Longman: White Plains, NY.

McInerney, D., & McInerney, V. (2006). Educational psychology: Constructing learning. Pearson: French’s Forest, NSW, Australia.

Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. Retrieved 5 November, 2012, from

http://site.aace.org/pubs/sigs/sig-Mishra-Koehler-TCR.pdf

Mergel, B. (1998). Instructional design & learning theory.Retrieved 3 November, 2012, from

http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#The%20Basics%20of%20Behaviorism

Siemens, G. (2004). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. Retrieved 3 November, 2012, from

http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm

Snowman, J., Dobozy, E., Scevak, J., Bryer, F., Bartlett, B., and Biehler, R. (2009). Psychology applied to teaching. Milton, QLD, Australia: Wylie.

WiredSafety.org. (n.d.). Stop cyberbullying:what is cyberbullying,

exactly? Retrieved 10 November, 2012, from

http://www.stopcyberbullying.org/what_is_cyberbullying_exactly.html

Zooburst

Week 6 - Engagement Activity 12

 

Reflection on Zooburst

I had a lot of fun experimenting with Zooburst, and creating my own pop-up book, which you can view below. It is better to expand the screen to full-size, to be able to read the page and character captions. The character captions are accessed by clicking on the exclamation marks over the top of the pictures.

I can see Zooburst being an excellent resource to employ within the early childhood education setting. Teachers can use this tool to create simple books on any topic, from introducing beginning sounds and early numeracy skills to explaining scientific phenomena that take the children's interest. In addition, it would make an excellent collaborative tool to engage young children in creating a class story, that can be created one page at a time and built upon as much as the children would like, or for as long as they remain interested - before they decide to begin another story, that is!

This is such a simple tool to use, and the results can be seen within such a short time that it is sure to maintain the interest of young children. In fact, pages can be as elaborate or as simple as you or they choose. This being the case, it would be an excellent tool through which to introduce basic computing skills to children in early childhood settings. Although they would need adult assistance to spell the words to search for pictures either within the clip art file supplied, or through uploading images, they themselves could use the mouse to maneuvre and position pictures, change the angles and sizes of pictures, and the timing of the pop-ups. There really isn't any way to go wrong with these simple tasks, and the result will always be quite effective.

The ways an early childhood teacher could use Zooburst to create teaching and learning resources is only as limited as their imagination. Why not try creating a page of 'farm animals', with one or two misplaced 'zoo animals', and then ask the children to identify the odd ones out? The answer could be on the following page ... which could then lead onto another page of 'zoo animals'. On this page, there might be a few misplaced domestic 'pets' for the children to identify as the odd ones out ... and, of course, this would lead onto a page of 'pets', and so forth.  There are many such simple classification / categorisation tasks that could be created in this way (e.g. fruits and vegetables, hot and cold, healthy and unhealthy, living and non-living, warm-blooded and cold-blooded and so on), and the beauty of Zooburst is that it is so quick to create a book - and, it already has many pictures available for use. 

In addition, audio tracks can be added to books. This would be great for stories the children create themselves, or for books of favourite songs and rhymes, or for identifying sounds. You might have a series of pictures and sounds on consecutive pages, some matching and some not. For example, a page may display a picture of a telephone with the sound of an alarm clock. You would then ask the children if the sound matches the picture. If not, on the next page you might display the same object (the telephone), with the numbers 1,2, and 3 on the page, attach sounds to the numbers, and ask the children to choose the correct sound. Or, you might have a number of alternative items on the next page (e.g. a toaster, an alarm clock and a small bell), from which the children can choose the item that really matches the sound. This is rather a simple example, but there are many more challenging objects and sounds to choose from, depending on the children's level of development. 

And so, Zooburst can be used by teachers and students. It can be used as a creative story book, as an interactive educational book to explore factual information, or as an interactive and educational activity book, among many other fun and engaging applications. As previously stated, the uses for Zooburst are only as limited as the imagination. I believe this is one of the best and simplest tools for presenting a variety of educational material to early childhood students, with both visual and auditory input and cues to stimulate sensory experiences and intellectual development. It's fun, engaging and creative! It can be used for all key learning areas, as well as for the development of basic concepts and understandings learned during the very early childhood years. I don't think young children would grow tired of this tool in a hurry, especially if they are allowed to play with it and create books and activities of their own - for themselves and their friends, and perhaps even for their teacher?!